1 INTRODUCTION

This report explores the increasing use of smart cards and smart card-based systems in Australia and in other countries, with a special focus on how these developments are likely to impact on people with disabilities and the older population.

At present the area of smart cards is undergoing particularly rapid change and expansion. This report doesn't attempt to be comprehensive or complete, but it does try to offer a balanced and realistic perspective on the field, both now and in the future.

The report has been worked on progressively since the second half of 1999, but has undergone many changes due to the endless flux, mergers, takeovers and other industry developments which typify this industry.

The eventual and widespread up-take of smart cards is no longer in question, but the "how", "what" and "when" issues vary from one country and situation to another. The questions are no longer "why smart cards?" or even "whether smart cards?" but simply "when?".

The report is being produced at a time where the smart card industry is intensely complicated and uncertain. Whereas only a year ago, it was commonly thought that the Mondex smart card electronic purse had a major market advantage internationally, this group now appears to be very marginalised as a result of industry-based standardisation efforts by most other smart card manufacturers, other than Mondex. Whereas it was commonly understood that The Big Four (four major Australian banks) had all signed an agreement with Mondex Australia, and would be adopting the Mondex electronic purse system, just last year Westpac announced a collaborative venture with ERG (a Perth-based smart card ticketing company) which would be based around a totally incompatible purse system called Proton, developed by Banksys in Belgium.

Already in Australia we have current trials or role-outs of six different and quite incompatible smart card platforms, leading to increased confusion, uncertainty and potential compatibility problems.

Although smart cards have been around for over 20 years now, they are still often described as a technology looking for an application. Nevertheless, there are already in excess of 15 Million smart cards in use in Australia alone (counting GSM SIM cards and smart card-based phone cards) and smart cards now make up 18 percent of overall plastic card manufacture internationally.

For reasons such as these, this report doesn't attempt to do a lot of "crystal ball" gazing, but it does draw together information from an array of commercial and other sources to predict how such technologies could affect us all, and in particular how they could affect people with disabilities.

The original intent was to produce a brief report strictly focused on disability issues alone, but with the complexity of the technology and the array of differing approaches and applications springing up in relation to smart cards, it was felt that the report should provide a broad-brush review of the area and act as a simple tutorial on the smart card subject.

The information is current as of first quarter 2000. It includes many accessibility considerations and observations throughout each section, as well as a more detailed section covering specific disability and accessibility topics in greater length. Because of the crossover between different smart card applications and uses, there is a small degree of unavoidable overlap of information in sections of the report.

2 WHAT IS A SMART CARD?

A smart card is a plastic card usually with similar dimensions to a standard credit card. Instead of a magnetic stripe, smart cards use an embedded computer chip and memory to store and process information. Depending on the particular smart card product, smart cards can hold at least 100 or more times as much data as a mag-stripe card. For example the latest American Express smart Blue cards contain 32 k of rewrite-able memory.

Although in most cases a smart card is approximately the same size as a credit card, another example of a smart card is a SIM (Subscriber Information Module) used in GSM digital mobile phones. Original SIM cards were credit card sized, but smaller phones now have a mini-sim which isn't much bigger than a thumbnail. Because of the huge up-take of mobile phones, particularly in Australia, Asia and Europe, SIM cards are probably the largest proportion of smart cards in use today, but most still only provide one function, though this is rapidly starting to change.

Smart cards allow information to be stored on the card rather than on a computer somewhere. This is an added advantage for security and allows encryption techniques to be used in the card.

Smartcards are more durable than traditional magnetic stripe cards as the chip cannot be affected by magnetic fields or scratches like the magnetic stripe on existing cards can.

The term 'Chip Card' is also sometimes used when discussing smart cards. Smart card readers can usually also write to smart cards, but in the literature and this document, for convenience the term 'smart card reader' is used.

2.1 Modes of Operation

There are two major interfaces used by smart cards to communicate with smart card readers and terminals - contact and contactless. Contact smart cards have gold or silver electrical contacts at one end, which allow the card to be powered, read from and written to, by smart card terminals. Some newer smart cards are contactless, meaning that they don't need to be inserted into a card reader. Contactless smart cards can usually be operated up to 15 or 20 cm away from the card reader device. With contactless smart cards, the power is provided by the card reader through induction or other electromagnetic means. Thus neither type of smart card requires internal batteries to operate. However battery power is likely to be required in order to have a contactless card which operates more than 20 cm from the card reader device.

For people with disabilities, contactless and longer-distance contactless smart cards have significant benefits and could provide interesting applications for navigation and identification of landmarks, technical installations etc.

At present, contact smart cards are considered to be significantly more secure than contactless cards, and they are also somewhat less expensive to manufacture. Some companies have developed contactless smart cards which they believe are very secure, but this technology is relatively young.

Transport ticketing is a common use of contactless smart cards due to the inconvenience and significantly greater time taken to use contact cards. Contactless cards don't even usually need to be removed from a wallet or handbag, they automatically pay for the ticket as a barrier is walked through.

A quite recent development, and one which is likely to lead to a major increase in smart card uptake is the increasing availability of dual mode cards which can work in either manner - contact or contactless, offering the perceived safety and convenience of both technologies, depending on the nature of the transaction.

Some smart cards may also contain a magnetic stripe, allowing them to be used as a standard credit card/banking card, or as a smart card. The recently released Blue American Express cards in the United States have this design, allowing them to operate as a standard magnetic stripe-based credit card, while also containing a unique electronic certificate, identifying the card holder, as well as validating that the card is not a fake. These cards are hoped to be used extensively for more secure internet purchases. Over time the card will contain additional applications.

2.2 Smart Card Operating Systems

Depending on the brand of card and its architecture, several smart card operating systems now exist. The most common of these are Chipper, Proton, MultOS and Java Card. In trial now, but not in wide usage yet, is Microsoft's Windows for Smart Cards. MultOS, JavaCard and Windows for Smart Cards are generally considered to be the three major emerging multi-application smart card platforms/operating systems.

The operating system controls how information is stored on and retrieved from the smart card, just as MS DOS or the Microsoft Windows computer operating system controls similar facilities on a PC. Security of data, particularly in multi-application situations is an important aspect of the smart card operating system.

At present there is a lot of work going into developing reliable and flexible operating systems for smart card applications, and with Microsoft's recent entry into this area, the competition is becoming even greater. Companies don't want to roll out a huge number of cards based on one platform/operating system, only to find that it has little support in one or two years time.

American Express's new smart Blue Cards are reported to have been issued in both JavaCard and MultOS versions, but most are based on MultOS. There has been some talk in the industry about MultOS being sold to Microsoft, which would give Microsoft an even greater impact on the smart card operating system arena, particularly in view of the time Microsoft has taken to get its product to market.

2.3 Multi Application Support

One reason why smart cards have taken a long time to get established internationally is that, until quite recently, they were unable to run multiple applications (programs) safely and easily on a single card.

One benefit of modern smart cards is their ability to replace common functions of several magnetic stripe cards on a single smart card. For example, a single smart card could potentially contain one or more credit cards, an electronic purse, a loyalty program, an electronic signature, act as a social security benefits card, act as a library card, and so on. This is discussed further in the following section.

For security purposes, a person's smart card might also contain a digital representation of his or her written signature, or an electronic signature (possibly issued by the Government), finger or thumb print information as well as a PIN.

At present, most smart cards only contain one or two applications, but depending on the operating system, and cooperation between vendors and service providers, this is beginning to change. Increases in the amount of rewrite-able memory that can be built into smart cards are now making multi-application cards more viable and flexible.

Another commercial barrier to multi-application cards is card branding rights. Banks and credit card companies want to be associated with their smart card, for this reason competing applications are less likely to be stored on a card branded by a rival vendor.

Until the issue of multiple applications on a single card is in widespread use, it will be very difficult indeed to gain wide user-acceptance of smart card technologies.

2.4 Smart Card Uptake Here and Abroad

Although there is a huge push from manufacturers and companies in the smart card industry, there is less certainty or excitement in the minds of potential users. To a large degree smart cards are still a technology searching for an application. Many European countries may be the exception here, but North America, Australia and even Hong Kong seem to be resistant to the touted benefits of the technologies, particularly for financial applications.

For new technologies to be taken up, they need to be clearly superior to the existing ways of doing things, and have minimal disadvantages over the status quo.

As is also the case in the US, Australia is cautious and comparatively slow in widespread uptake of smart card technology.

Although Australia is renowned for its uptake of new technologies, we seem to have the knack of knowing which technologies to 'back', but even more importantly, when. For example, we were international leaders in the uptake of fax machines, mobile phones and the internet, but haven't rushed into fad technologies which didn't survive.

Widespread adoption of smart card technologies isn't just a financial commitment, it is also a technology which will have profound impacts on the economy and Australia's involvement in the community and economy. It will change the whole culture underpinning the cash economy, something which Australians value.

North America and Australia are much bigger users of creditcard services than are Europe, or Asia, and we also both have well-developed telecommunications systems and mag-stripe infrastructures (both ATM and EFTPOS) to support the existing huge base of mag-stripe cards in use. There is little immediate incentive for either the banking system, or the consumer, to change.

From the banking perspective, we have an acceptably (manageable) level of creditcard fraud, it would be very expensive to roll out smart cards and readers for venders and banks, and the current system offers the Government, banks and credit card issuers a "cut" of every electronic transaction which occurs.

Furthermore, with multiple essentially incompatible systems, the unprecedented fighting between Mastercard and Visa, the real question is "which directions and technologies to back".

Because smart cards represent a huge paradigm shift, banks and Governments need to carefully consider how they can assure continued or increased profitability under a smart card-based infrastructure.

But in the year 2000, it is generally accepted that smart cards will become an ever increasing part of our daily lives, it is just an issue of how quickly and which domains will change over to smart cards first.

Smart cards are more likely to be widely embraced in Australia when most of the following requirements are met:

§ multi-application smart cards are the norm, rather than the exception;

§ the over twenty incompatible electronic purse systems are reduced to a few inter-compatible systems;

§ when several companies have cost-effective card-readers which can read magnetic stripe/contact/contactless cards and accept PINs for these;

§ When simple-to-use multi-currency storage/conversion is available;

§ When there is a higher level of confidence about the security of smart card technologies, and increased trust in the Governments and companies behind them. E.g. Mondex's technology is proprietary and its security is through obscurity, not disclosure of protocols;

§ When Government regulation is clearer and a better balance is met between privacy/anonymity and regulation/auditing. For example, smart cards in Australia were severely set back a few years ago when the "Australia Card" debate blew up, where many Australians feared for their anonymity and information privacy. Smart cards were seen by many to be the ideal tool for implementing the Australia Card concept, leading to smart cards being associated with Government data collection;

§ ;When the existing technologies start comparing poorly to smart card replacements; and

§ Now that the computer millennium roll-over is behind us.

Internationally, smart cards now account for 18% of world card production. Plastic card manufacturers produced 6.7 billion cards worldwide in 1998, with half of the cards produced for the North American market, according to the first annual Card Manufacturing Global Market Survey of the International Card Manufacturers Association. The Princeton Junction, N.J.-based trade group pegged the value of the cards sold at $1.4 billion, with Europe representing the largest regional market at $581 million in card purchases. Smart cards accounted for 1.2 billion units or about 18% of the world total. Financial hologram cards made up just more than 875 million units, according to the survey, which was prepared by the Chicago-based accounting and consulting firm Arthur Andersen Company.

In 1999, an estimated 250 million SIM (Subscriber Information Module) cards for GSM mobile phones were manufactured, and this number is expected to double this year.

Although the expected explosion of electronic purses hasn't really happened, there are major moves in many countries to change all their magnetic stripe-based credit cards and debit cards to chip-cards over the next two to seven years. Japan, Korea, Spain, Mexico, Canada and other countries all are working towards this, but Australia has not made any significant announcements along these lines to date.

Ironically, the current chip shortage impacting all of the computer industry is having a significant effect on smart card production internationally, particularly for mobile phone SIM cards.

"Canadians will be using 35 million chip cards by 2004, compared with 5.1 million cards today, predicts Christie Christelis, president of Oakville, Ontario-based Technology Surveys International Inc. While 85% of the 4.5 million smart cards issued last year in Canada were for use in payphones or mobile phones, the major growth over the next few years will come from credit and debit card issuers converting their magnetic-stripe cards to chip, Christelis says. He says Canadian investments in chip card systems over the next five years will total $500 million, including cards, terminals, software and professional services" (Taken from "Card Technology Daily News")

3 POTENTIAL USES OF SMART CARDS

Smart cards are seen as a replacement for the existing and ubiquitous mag-stripe cards used in Australia. Examples of smart cards already in wide use include Telstra's newer phone cards, some transit cards used in Western Australia, trials of smart cards in various cities and universities, and limited smart card roll-outs planned for some aspects of the 2000 Olympics in Sydney.

Some existing and proposed uses for smart cards include:

§ Alternative to, or replacement for cash - termed electronic purses;

§ Replacement of magnetic stripe cards used for credit cards and debit cards;

§ Student and employee security passes to buildings and computers;

§ Paying for utilities such as gas and electricity;

§ Voting in elections (such as using a university-issued identity card to vote for student council and the like);

§ Electronic passports;

§ train/bus/ferry tickets/passes;

§ other ticketing applications such as concerts, the Olympics, etc;

§ M-40 Government-funded Disability Taxi Subsidy Scheme;

§ Paying for Regular and disabled car parking;

§ library card;

§ Loyalty and shopper discount program cards;

§ Storage of personal data, e.g. medical records;

§ storage of an individual's personal and biometric information such as facial geometry, finger/thumb prints, voice patterns, identifying characteristics, electronic signatures, written signature, and so on;

§ Storage of a person's user interface preferences e.g. speech or large print display on an ATM.

3.1 Electronic Purses

Electronic purses are being designed to gradually replace the cash economy - notes and coins. In contrast to credit cards and EFTPOS cards, smart card-based electronic purses will be able to support very small transaction amounts such as 25 cents, a couple of dollars, and the like. Thus they have interesting applications for public transport, cafés, newspaper stands, taxis, parking stations, etc.

The UK Banking Code defines an electronic purse as

"Any card or function of a card which contains real value in the form of electronic money which someone has paid for in advance, and which can be reloaded with further funds and which can be used for a range of purposes".

Unlike credit and debit cards - where funds are stored in a bank account or credit account - smart card electronic purses actually store digital cash in the memory of the smart card. The result of this difference is that for electronic purse purchases, no telephone link needs to exist to confirm or complete the transaction.

Electronic purses will also be extensively used to make internet purchases, since they can both validate the user, and transfer virtual cash from the smart card to the vendor.

In an economy which uses electronic purses, an ATM will not only issue traditional cash, but will also allow one to transfer funds from an account directly into a smart card containing an electronic purse.

Future mobile phones are another area where smart cards will be in widespread use. The phone may be able to support two smart cards - one the SIM containing the details of the user and telephone service, the other supporting a smart card for E-Commerce facilities. Motorola phones are now being manufactured which can accept a full-sized smart card in addition to the SIM card. Other manufacturers have similar plans and products on the way.

Ericsson is testing a new "wireless wallet," letting phone users pay for goods and services on their handsets with the same chip-based payment cards they use at physical stores.

"The wallet resembles the leather billfold consumers now use to store their payment cards. But the Ericsson wallet has built-in smart card readers. With the product, a phone user could shop on the Internet with one of the many Web phones that are just now hitting the market. Then, when it comes time to pay, the consumer would transmit the payment data from his chip-based credit, debit or e-purse card from the wallet to his mobile phone. He need not remove the wallet from his pocket or briefcase because the data travels via radio waves using a short-range wireless technology called Bluetooth". (Taken from "Card Technology Daily News")

Unlike cash, electronic purses are not cent-for-cent in value. Its likely that an electronic purse will incur charges as does a bank card or bank account e.g. monthly, establishment, and maybe transaction charges. Thus most of the electronic purse benefits are actually to the providers, not to the users.

One reason for somewhat slower up-take of electronic purses by banks is that it is not clear to them how to maximise an income stream from the new technologies. Banks and the major creditcard brands are also very concerned that with the explosion of mobile E-Commerce that they will lose branding options due to limited screen size and the move away from graphics in systems such as WAP (Wireless Access Protocol).

The banks are also fearful of "backing the wrong horse" with the plethora of pseudo standards and systems being trialled in the marketplace.

At present electronic purses do not constitute legal tender in Australia, meaning that it is difficult to force a large enough number of vendors to accept such technologies. With the move to more current legislation such as the Electronic Financial Transactions bill in Australia, it is likely that more widespread use of electronic purses and other 'digital cash' technologies will occur.

Another major disadvantage of electronic purses is that it is extremely unlikely that digital cash stored on a card will be redeemable for traditional cash. Furthermore, it is probable that losing the card will be the same as losing hard cash, even though the technology in many cases would be able to recover the funds, or disable the card. As discussed further in the section on Transport, this issue is a stumbling block to smart card-based transportation ticketing systems in Australia.

There will be several competing purses and each will have differing loyalty programs attached. This may result in many people having more than one card, each with stored value, resulting in more of 'their' funds tied up, with the banks benefiting from a bigger cash float. Based on telephone card surveys, it is common for people to keep small amounts of digital cash on cards for significant periods, say 10 to 25 percent of the funds, which aren't gaining interest or reducing other debt.

According to the New South Wales Privacy Committee, research has also shown that people spend 5 to 25 percent more using plastic money than they would with cash, because the sense of loss is not immediate. Electronic purses will most likely be able to be charged up from credit cards, making them an extension of credit for small-value items as well as larger ones. This means that people who are not good at budgeting will actually be worse off and may get themselves much further into debt than with the current cash economy being required for small-value purchases like bread and milk. Loyalty and Frequent Flyer programs are other examples where through subtle inducement, people spend more using their credit cards than they otherwise might in using cash.

At present people who are blind or vision impaired are able (with some obvious difficulties) to participate in the cash economy, sometimes being able to obtain cash via EFTPOS, ATMS or bank branches. The notes are different in length, facilitating determination of value by touch, and coins for the most part are tactually differentiated significantly from one another.

Smart cards in widespread use for electronic purse applications present the possibility that blind people won't be able to transfer funds to their cards with ease, independence or privacy. Because the advent of electronic purses will result in 'no change' being issued following a purchase, the process of checking one's change would no longer be available to blind or vision-impaired customers.

Although sighted purchasers can see the display on the vendor's counter, and have some confidence that their transaction went as expected, this isn't currently an option for blind customers. If we examine the M-40 taxi subsidy scheme in New South Wales and other States, there is concern that some unscrupulous taxi drivers, knowing that blind passengers are unable to read the meter, or see what is written on taxi dockets, adjust pricing to the driver's benefit. When cash is paid for fares, this issue is not perceived to be nearly so common, due to the amount of change being returned by the driver.

Similarly, banks and other providers are expected to issue portable, low-cost card balance readers (maybe in the form of a key-ring) but the displays on these devices are very difficult for anyone to easily read, let alone a person with severe vision impairment. Obviously someone who is blind will be unable to access the display.

An interesting recent development is an Australian-designed EFTPOS terminal (which could well support smart cards) which can speak the transaction value, and which has clear, easy to find keyboard layout and raised symbols on buttons.

More information on access to card information is available in the Disabilities section of this report.

3.1.1 The "electronic register tape" scenario

Al Gilman from the Trace Center and others have proposed that in point of sale and electronic purse applications, the smart card act as the authoritative record of the transaction particulars. It would be interesting to know to what extent this scenario is provided for in the CEPS (Common Electronic Purse Specification) standard which has been developed by the majority of smart card-based electronic purse manufacturers.

Following is an extract from a recent post by Al Gilman to the UACCESS-l mailing list, administered by the Trace Center, titled

The 'electronic register tape' scenario

The essence of this is:

"When a smart card (representing the funds of the consumer) interacts with a point of sale device (representing the inventory of the merchant), the merchant's agent should be prepared to return an itemized receipt to the consumer's agent in return for the debit authorization that the merchant's agent receives from the consumer's agent.

Currently, information about where the money went is channelled through the credit card company. This only contains a summary identification for the transaction, not an itemization of the goods purchased. So it does not replace the sales slip which is the bedrock of the retail sales transaction, as far as maintaining fraud-free markets and adjusting discrepancies when they occur.

The rules of engagement need to be adjusted in the consumer's favour such that anything that can bleed you of funds can at least give you a record, in a medium convenient to you, of what the funds went for.

The key here is actually understanding the roles in the business transaction. The disabled interest is a footnote, although it is what triggered the articulation of this model. All this scenario development was triggered by an earlier discussion of cash cards on the list.

The consumer's ability to get an itemized accounting of what the money went for should not be eroded by the migration of the funds transfer to virtual space.

Delivering an itemized sales receipt to the smart device from which virtual funds are obtained is readily achievable, but it may need to be legislated to make it the norm.

The process by which the cash card informs the point of sale device that a receipt will be required is an instance of the Alternative Interface Access Protocol which is a concept under study in the U.S. by a Study Group on IT Accommodation chartered by the National Committee on IT Standards."

For more information about the Study Group, see its web sites:

§ Official home page: http://www.ncits.org/study/study.htm

§ Protocol related technical documents: http://www.uniac.com/

§ Other related information: http://w3.gsa.gov/web/m/cita.nsf/Portals/NCITS

3.1.2 RNIB Electronic Purse Recommendations

Following is an extract from a comprehensive RNIB publication on electronic purses relating to accessibility: titled 'What is an electronic purse?' from the section titled 'Recommendations'. This publication is online at http://www.eyecue.co.uk/eyecue/e.purse/reader/menu.html

"If electronic purses become as widely used as planned, they may become the only acceptable way of payment for some services.

The current designs for electronic purses raise concerns about the way elderly and disabled persons will be able to use these systems. If the purse systems are not well designed they could exclude many potential users.

The following recommendations address some specific problems. Our aim is to encourage all designers to test their designs with a cross section of potential users, which will include disabled and elderly people. Good design for people with disabilities is frequently good design for everyone.

Numeric and command buttons.

A standard layout for keypads is recommended. There are two common layouts for numeric keys; the telephone layout and the calculator layout. It is recommended that the telephone layout be used.

Screen displays.

A high contrast display with larger characters will significantly improve legibility for most people with low vision.

A typeface with clear and easy to distinguish characters should be used, eg. 'Screenfont', see web site www.eyecue.co.uk/tiresias.

Card Entry.

It is useful to have a funnel opening to guide the card into the reader; this is particularly helpful for users who have low vision or hand tremor.

Larger buttons and tactual feedback.

Larger buttons which have clear visual markings and tactual feedback should be used. Tactual indication can be provided by a gradual increase in the force, followed by a sharp decrease in the force required to actuate the key, and a subsequent increase in force beyond this point of cushioning.

To help blind people, there should be a single raised dot on the number 5 key. This should be positioned so as not to reduce legibility.

Card orientation.

Blind persons, and many elderly persons, have problems in inserting the card in the correct orientation. All electronic purse cards should include a tactile identifier for card orientation (in accordance with Standard EN 1332-2).

Access to terminals.

At the retailer's premises, it is important that the visual display is positioned such that the customer can easily read it before agreeing to the completion of the transaction. For customers with low vision, this requires that they can get close to the high-contrast visual display.

Speech output.

The possibility of speech output for some devices should be considered. If this is not wanted for all customers, this requirement could be coded on the user's card (in accordance with Standard prEN 1332-4).

Braille.

In outdoor conditions, braille has limited value in cold weather since tactual sensitivity is dramatically reduced with decreasing temperature. The estimated number of braille readers in Europe is less than 0.02% of the population; so although useful for some blind users, braille is not a total solution for visually impaired users.

Screen phones.

For visually impaired persons, provision of adapted screen phones at affordable prices is likely to be crucial if they are not to be excluded from using electronic purses. These phones might offer other facilities such as caller line identification and access to home shopping services.

Training.

Serious consideration should be given to training in the use of the purses and the systems they link into; and who is responsible for providing this training. Training schemes should include production of clearly written instruction booklets in large print.

Keeping communications simple.

Given that retail or public transport environments tend to be bustling and distracting places to be in, all designs should aim to make electronic purse systems as simple to use as possible. Communication between the devices, terminals and the user should be direct and simple. For example, for intellectually impaired persons, it might be useful to have a simple balance reader which shows the balance pictorially or have that person's card specially coded to show pictorial information".

For more information refer to the publication "Access Prohibited? Information for Designers of Public Access Terminals" which gives detailed information on the design of public access terminals. This is available on the world wide web at www.eyecue.co.uk/pats

3.2 Smart Cards for Online Purchasing/Verification

With the explosion of online shopping and web commerce, smart cards may well be the answer to fraud, fear and uncertainty about the safety of buying goods online. In Australia in particular, there is significant fear by web users of using their credit card online, particularly for international purchases.

From late November to the end of December,1999, America Online shoppers spent US$2.5 billion, while Amazon.com had sales of US$650 million in the fourth quarter of 1999 – more than its total sales during 1998.

Such figures are forcing researchers to revise their estimated online sales figures upwards. Boston Consulting Group believes E-Commerce sales in the US over the Christmas 2000 period will be as high as US$11 billion – more than triple the figure for the same period last year.

In Australia, the picture is a little different. While 47% of Australian households have a PC and 22% have Internet access, only 5% have shopped online. A recent survey by Ernst & Young on Global Online Retailing has found that 50% of the Australians surveyed cited fear of credit fraud as the main reason they did not shop online.

Two big players in the smart card arena, Mondex and American Express, are both working on technologies based on smart cards which will ensure that people are who they claim to be, and to minimise the risk of card duplication and fraud.

Mondex is adapting its electronic purse system to be used in online environments, both for purchase of goods, and for recharging of cash on the card.

In its first major alliance with an Internet player, Mondex International says it will combine its chip-based electronic cash with the Web currency offered by New York-based beenz.com. Smart cards carrying both the real-world and Web-based currencies should be ready for testing by April 2000. Web merchants give consumers beenz as rewards for visiting sites, shopping or responding to survey questions, and consumers can redeem the points for goods online. When combined with Mondex e-cash, cardholders will be able to download beenz from their Web account onto Mondex chip cards, and use the points to make purchases in conventional shops and through television set-top boxes or mobile phones.

American Express has been rolling out its smart card-based Blue Card in the United States which acts as a regular blue (credit) card, and also contains an electronic certificate to verify the user for online web transactions. Future developments will result in multiple applications being available on the American Express blue card – such as loyalty, travel, entertainment and other yet-to-be-announced applications.

Australian companies such as KeyCorp are similarly working hard to establish themselves and their smart card products to increase confidence by online shoppers. By requiring the user to insert his or her smart card into the PC to verify their identity, sellers will be able to trade with increased confidence, fraud will be diminished and customers will also be able to shop online with increased confidence.

With the imminent advent of set-top-boxes, interactive television-based shopping and cable access to internet shopping malls and the like, smart cards will be the primary vehicle for purchase of goods, as well as the basis of access rights to other cable-based services.

Most set-top-boxes sold from now on will have a smart card in the back of the unit which controls access to different channels and cable services, as well as a smart card slot in the front, for use by the consumer. When an advertisement for a product the consumer is interested in is shown, the consumer can insert his or her card in the front of the box to automatically receive a digital discount coupon. When they take their smart card to the store, they can redeem the discount upon purchase. These dual-slot boxes are likely to encourage credit card issuers and merchants to introduce smart cards.

A broader concern is the accessibility of such online services being provided over television sets, which may deny many people with disabilities the touted benefits of smart card purchasing, because of the inaccessibility of set-top-boxes to many people with disabilities.

These kinds of issues are discussed in more detail in a companion report available online at www.bca.org.au/ecrep.htm

The Scientific Research Unit of the RNIB (Royal National Institute for the Blind) is undertaking substantial research in the area of cable services and use of set-top-boxes.

3.3 Smart Cards for Mobile E-Commerce

An estimated 500 million people will use their mobile phones and other handheld devices to engage in mobile commerce by 2005, predicts London-based research and consulting firm Ovum Ltd. in a new report. The consumers and business people will use their cellular phones and other devices, such as handheld computers, to log onto the Internet for a range of services, from buying books and music to trading stock. This projected boom will pit banks against cellular network operators and Internet companies, such as Yahoo! and America Online, all of whom want a piece of the action, says Duncan Brown, Ovum's director of research for North America. "What they're fighting over is access to customers or ownership of customers," he says."

Similar predictions of more than half the internet access devices being non-PC devices in two to five years are also well reported in the press.

WAP (Wireless Access Protocol) is an effort to bring the internet to the small-screen and low through-put world of mobile phones, but it is only one of a variety of strategies for web enabling mobile technologies.

This is one area where such developments will greatly add to, rather than detract from accessibility. This is because the size of mobile screens means that text-only access will be commonplace, and as a result web sites will need to be made more basic in design to accommodate online access and as a vehicle for online purchases.

The W3C has also been working in the area of mobile access to the web, and is now reported to be in discussions with the WAP Forum.

A brief overview of efforts to make mobile phones more accessible to people with disabilities is discussed in the Disability Issues section of this report.

3.4 Smart Cards and Transportation

Transport is believed to be one of the killer applications which it is considered smart cards would be ideally suited to.

Transportation is the main application pushing the development and widespread use of contactless smart cards – where the card can be up to 15 cm away from the card reading device. Of course the down side of contactless cards is that the user isn't actively paying for the goods, the funds are automatically taken from the card often without the user even realising that the value on their card has been depleted.

Overall, however, contactless smart cards have many positive attributes of benefit to a wide range of disabled people. These include not having to be able to physically handle the card, not having to insert it into a small slot, not having to worry about which way round the card needs to go before inserting it, and not having to be able to reach the relatively long distances often required to insert a smart card.

For transport payments to effectively be managed through smart cards, improved integration of services (bus, train, tram, ferry, light rail, etc) would be required.

The M-40 taxi subsidy scheme concession has been discussed many times with respect to smart cardisation, but this isn't likely to happen nationally until other smart card infrastructures are in place. If there were accessible card readers, then the user would be able to verify the fare charged to their card, something not possible for blind taxi travellers at the moment.

In 1995 the New South Wales Privacy Committee speculated that in transport applications it is likely that the current range of volume purchase discounting for weekly, monthly and quarterly tickets will be significantly reduced, since the card will be used to pay for each stage of the journey, so the effective cost of public transport may implicitly rise as a result of, and to pay for, the introduction of smart cardization.

However, when Toronto-based Scotiabank announced A Combination Transit and Loyalty Card which would cost about $2 to issue and could hold up to 48 loyalty programs, and automated ticketing, it believed this would save an average of $15 per month in token issuing and collecting costs.

At a recent workshop on smart cards and people with disabilities organised by People With Disabilities NSW, the concern was also expressed that the current disability and aged travel concessions might be lost or diminished due to the implementation of new smart card based systems.

3.5 Smart Cards for Security

Physical security to buildings, access security for computers, verification of identity and authority, proof of ownership and a variety of other access issues could ideally be handled through the use of smart card technologies.

The US Department of Defence has put out a tender for identification smart cards which is expected to lead to the issuing of upwards of 4 million cards in the first 12 months of the program. In time it is expected that all Government employees will have an access smart card.

This card will allow access to building and rooms, to computer logons, and will allow purchase of goods and services by Government staff.

Security is particularly suited to smart cards due to the considerable difficulty involved in either cracking the codes stored in a smart card, and the difficulty in duplicating the card or modifying the codes within it.

The smart card can store personal and biometric details of its owner such as finger prints, a representation of facial geometry, iris scan details etc. It can also store a secure PIN.

For people with disabilities, the key concerns with use of modern security access technologies is that they don't unintentionally lock out disabled people from the system.

Security systems should always allow a PIN to be used, where this is necessary for certain individuals. The system should provide several means of verification of identity, to accommodate deformities or attributes of individuals which don't fit the standard profiles.

Some people don't have hands, so can't provide finger prints. Others can't reach the touch panel to register their prints. Some people have artificial eyes, so can't provide retinal or iris scans. Some people cannot speak, or need to use a speech synthesiser, so their voice print would be unusable.

Modern security technologies need to incorporate a degree of flexibility, to ensure the most secure and reliable verification across the population.

3.6 Selected Smart Card Developments in Australia

The following sub-sections describe some relatively recent developments in Australia, as examples of local smart card uptake. Various trials and initiatives are being considered or are in progress, however the purpose of this section is only to provide a couple of examples.

3.6.1 Australian Banks

Until recently, it was assumed that all the major Australian banks would be adopting the Mondex electronic purse system at some time in the future, since the four major banks all signed up to use the Mondex system a couple of years ago. But, since that time, Mondex has lost market share and its perceived "lead" in the electronic purse industry.

Last year Westpac shocked the whole industry by announcing an alliance with ERG, a Perth Company whose technology is based on Proton smart card technology – the key competitor to Mondex (previously stated as the chosen single electronic purse technology to be adopted by all the "big four" Australian banks). The banks certainly haven't turned their back on Mondex, but pretty much all players in this area now have a foot in more than one camp, waiting to see how the electronic purse market develops.

According to a press release in September 1999, the ANZ Bank is partnering with ERG and Telstra to provide smart card clearance services. Neither Telstra nor ERG have indicated interest in the Mondex electronic purse platform, and ERG has already developed products which utilise the Proton electronic purse system.

Because Visa is a major Olympics sponsor, the adoption of smart card electronic purses throughout the Olympics is also complicated. Visa is explicitly anti-Mondex, because Mondex is 51% owned by Visa's arch rival, Mastercard. In response to Mondex's initial popularity, Visa has headed up the CEPS system, which is inherently incompatible with Mondex.

It is still unclear just how and when the Australian banks will roll out smart card-based electronic purses or when they will move magnetic stripe-based credit and debit cards across to smart card platforms, but if other countries are a gauge, the changeover from magstripe cards won't be a long way off.

Non-banking bodies like Telstra Corporation are also exploring use of smart cards for financial transactions, as is discussed in more detail below. Telstra's association with ANZ is therefore interesting and strategic.

Electronic purses are also likely to be provided as an added benefit for smart card-based ticketing systems, and these could well adopt different and incompatible purse systems to what the banks and others plan to make available.

3.6.2 Telstra and Smart Cards

Telstra has been developing a new generation product originally called the multimedia payphone. These phones are expected to be multimedia information kiosks incorporating a touch-screen, a smart card reader, and, as the name suggests, regular public telephone facilities. It is anticipated that Telstra will have a clearer picture about the future directions of this service by mid-year.

Based on the information that Telstra is a major player in the International Chip Cards Alliance (it hosted this body's convention in 1997), its membership of MAOSCO, heavy utilisation of the Chipper smart card platform, and more recently its interest in the MultOS operating system and its planned partnership with ERG and ANZ, Telstra is clearly interested in positioning itself as a significant smart card player in Australia.

If Telstra is working to have in place an infrastructure which allows it to offer an electronic cash implementation based on its multimedia payphone network, then it is very important that people with disabilities can independently access electronic cash through use of its payphones. In view of the reticence to date with which the banks have encouraged uptake of smart card-based electronic purses, Telstra may indeed be well placed to achieve success in this endeavour.

3.6.3 Government and Centrelink Developments

An Australian Government-based consortium including several State governments, local Councils and other Government Departments such as Centrelink, carried out an investigation with the goal of establishing a common platform/operating system which could be used by consortium members and others as the basis for smart card applications. MultOS was the selected operating system, and already the City of Canberra has commenced development of several services which will utilise smart cards.

Over the last few years, Centrelink (formerly the Department of Social Security) has considered the use of smart cards to improve the delivery of benefits/payments and more efficient records access. Issues including privacy and more recent uncertainties about which smart card technologies should be considered, have lead to inaction until very recently.

Some potential uses for smart cards by Centrelink include chip-based pension and health benefits cards, provision of an electronic purse which could be linked to Centrelink payments or bank account funds, as a means of identification for accessing and potentially updating personal information held about Centrelink subscribers, and sister applications for handling transport concessions and taxi subsidies.

4 SMART CARDS AND PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

People with disabilities are a significant group in our society and they have a range of special needs. It is extremely important that smart card systems are developed and implemented with this group's needs in mind, or the negative social impact will be substantial and people with disabilities will be denied participation in the economic life of their community.

Some issues of particular significance to people with disabilities include

§ identifying a card and reliably differentiating it from other cards;

§ being able to determine reliably which way to insert a contact card;

§ holding, inserting and withdrawing the card;

§ ability to use contactless cards to avoid problems listed above;

§ how people with differing abilities can access information displayed relating to the card - e.g. balance, transaction history, transaction particulars;

§ additional and hidden costs associated with smart card technologies e.g. transportation costs, monthly and transaction-based costs;

§ privacy concerns - user interface requirements;.

§ potential for smart card technology to trigger technology and software to operate in a mode that is more suited to their situation e.g. speech or large print output, increased timeouts and simplified layout;

§ Increased efficiency in using a smart card as a replacement for paperwork associated with claiming medical, social security and other reimbursements;

§ Implications of loss or theft of the smart card may lead to far greater inconvenience and affect a person's safety, since so many services could be stored on the single card. Because travel to different locations can be difficult for many people with disabilities, the loss of a card with multiple applications could be very major.

In addition, a range of other social and economic issues will have a major impact on certain people with disabilities.

As early as 1995 The New South Wales Privacy Committee produced a well researched and provocative report on the possible social, economic, legal and privacy implications of smart cards. This paper provides both an optimistic and a pessimistic scenario of how smart cards might impact on us, and even though it was prepared nearly 5 years ago, its content is still very pertinent.

The report "Smart Cards: Big Brother's Little Helpers" can be found online at http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/privacy/smart/download/smart.txt

4.1 Alternative Ways of Accessing Smart Card Information

There are a variety of possible ways that smart card information – such as balances and transaction details – could be made accessible to people who are blind or vision impaired. Some of these are discussed below.

4.1.1 Smart Cards and Point-of-Sale Terminals

Although current EFTPOS systems in Australia and the United States do not commonly employ smart cards, this information is equally applicable to smart card-based systems.

The following information was assembled from Card Technology Daily News and Keynotes – a Keycorp publication to shareholders – First Quarter, 2000

New POS Terminals Aid Handicapped Users

"Sea Cliff, N.Y.-based U.S. Netcom will market a new point-of-sale terminal the company says is easier to use for visually impaired and physically handicapped consumers. Under terms of a multimillion-dollar contract with Sydney, Australia-based KeyCorp, U.S. Netcom becomes the exclusive U.S. distributor of the K23-family of terminals, to be sold under the name IC eCommerce in the United States. The exact value of the deal was not disclosed, but both companies say it involves the purchase of thousands of terminals. The terminals are the first to comply fully with the Americans with Disabilities Act, U.S. Netcom President Ronald Katz says. Each comes with a detachable keypad, allowing wheelchair-bound customers to place it on their laps for transactions. Also, raised characters on each key enable blind and visually impaired users to operate the keypad without having to ask for assistance. The terminal also contains a speaker that broadcasts the total amount of the transaction. IC eCommerce terminals were installed at more than 100 merchant locations, mostly on the East Coast, during the last week of December for a pilot project."

"Keycorp has re-designed the key layout on the K23 terminal, using colour coding, a raised dot on the five key and raised ridges on critical keys. The PIN pad also features voice prompts to guide the user through the process, and a large LCD screen with high contrast back lighting."

4.1.2 Smart cards and mobile phones

Because the screens of mobile phones are unusable by most blind or low vision individuals, the use of this device for accessing smart card details will be limited. A possible solution to this would be to integrate phone-network-based audio IVR technology which accompanies screen display so that a person can use their phone to check details on their smart card. This service would have to be provided by the telephone network, so that the mobile phone only needs to present the audio messages via the speaker.

It is widely reported that Nokia are in the process of doing a needs analysis towards development of a voice output and widely accessible mobile phone. Whether this will only voice menu options or also speak screen messages from SMS (Short Message Service), phone numbers names etc., is not yet clear. Depending on the elaborateness of this development effort, a wide range of facilities including smart card accessibility may be the outcome.

Either the network level interactive voice response access to smart card details, or the in-built voicing by the mobile phone would support a range of people who are non-visual, and who want audio feedback of what is appearing on their phone display when using their smart card. It would also be beneficial for people who are undertaking eyes-busy activities such as driving and who can't look at the phone display.

4.1.3 Smart cards and PCs

It is anticipated that most PCs sold from 2000 onwards will have either a smart card terminal installed, or will be smart card terminal ready.

Microsoft's move into smart cards is going to strongly drive a closer linking of smart cards and PCs - both for security purposes and for more secure and convenient electronic commerce.

Smart Card terminals can be purchased which can be used to read and write to smart cards, as well as presenting transaction information from electronic purses. Although the displays (if present) on smart card terminals are not likely to be accessible, it may well be possible for the PC to access and present information from the smart card on the computer screen.

What is not yet clear is to what extent security facilities on the computer operating system (such as built in to Windows 2000) will impact accessibility of smart card information, by denying it to screen reading technology to ensure unauthorised access to the information doesn't occur.

4.1.4 Smart cards and Television Set-top-boxes

This is an area of significant concern for people with disabilities, since the majority of set-top-boxes are designed at an extremely low price point, and provide no alternative output or input options. They are not designed with accessibility in mind, and their design generally precludes after-market enhancement or voice output software.

Royal National Institute for the Blind and WGBH in the United States are examining accessibility of cable TV and other interactive services.

4.1.5 Smart Cards for ATMs and Information Kiosks

In many places efforts are under way to make ATM facilities more accessible, by providing voice output and other means of information presentation. The Trace Center and The Productivity Works are both developing prototypes and products for designing accessible information kiosks.

Sun Micro Systems have been demonstrating an ATM that operates on the Java language, and which adjusts its user interface features according to the preferences stored on a Java ring - a wearable finger ring containing a chip - (an alternative to a smart card).

Electronic Purses will be able to be re-charged with electronic cash via ATMs, so instead of cash, your card will have funds stored on it, which are transferred out of your account. Unless the ATM or information kiosk used to transfer these funds is accessible, then it may be difficult or impossible for some people with disabilities to obtain electronic cash for daily use.

At present, bank branches will issue cash, but as the number of face-to-face staff continues to diminish and branches continue closing, the assistance of bank staff in obtaining regular and electronic cash will become an increasing challenge.

Two research and development projects are discussed below which are likely to lead towards access solutions for public information and cash terminals.

4.2 The European Saturn Project

The Royal National Institute for the Blind, in collaboration with others, undertook a major research project into this problem of accessing cash dispensers such as ATMs. This was named the Saturn Project

Following is an extract from an RNIB publication on this work.

"When a person with a disability needs to use a cash dispenser, he or she may meet a number of difficulties. Some of these difficulties relate to finding the terminal or physically getting there, but many of the problems relate to the user interface on the cash dispenser. However many financial organizations are planning to change from magnetic stripe cards to smart cards (also known as ‘chip cards’). A few years ago a number of organizations realised that these smart cards could potentially alleviate many of the problems concerning the user interfaces of self-service machines such as cash dispensers, and as a result the Saturn project was established with the support of the European Commission.

The Saturn consortium includes major manufacturers of cash dispensers and self-service terminals, a major manufacturer of smart cards, a telecommunications operator, as well as organizations concerned with the needs of people with disabilities."

Saturn is an acronym for Smart card And Terminal Usability Requirements and Needs.

The project developed an accessible prototype automatic teller machine which supported both contact and contactless smart cards, and automatically presented screen information in the screen font or audio format required by the user. The user's user interface preference was stored on the smart card and read by the ATM.

An informative report on the findings of the Saturn project and guidelines for good ATM design can be found at http://www.stakes.fi/include/cases.html

A report on the Saturn study says the following about use of smart cards for accessing cash dispensers:

"Meeting Individual Needs

To select a preferred interface, the user could simply press a button or select from a menu on the screen; this is likely to increase the time taken to undertake a transaction. Another possibility is to store the user’s preferences on a central computer and implement them as soon as the PIN (personal identification number) has been entered.

However, it is possible to store the information on the customer’s card. With a magnetic stripe card there is very limited spare capacity for storing this information (but this method has been used for storing the user’s preference for displayed language). A smart card has fewer restrictions on storage capacity so appears to be ideal for this purpose.

The user could request a particular interface by: Filling in a form when applying for the card at a help desk / registration station

Choosing at a cash dispenser

Many disabled users would like to be able to select and store their preferred interface whenever they use their card at a cash dispenser. It is essential that information is stored on a card only with the consent of the user.

Card Insertion

Of all of the problems cash dispenser users may face, card insertion in the correct orientation is of particular importance for people in wheelchairs, those with Parkinson’s disease and those who are blind. The problem can be significantly alleviated by the provision of a contactless card reader mounted under the facia. Contactless card technology is widely used in public transport applications (eg by London Transport on the Harrow buses and in Manchester), but the desire to retain invalid cards has prevented the use of this approach for cash dispensers. Since it is possible to electronically cancel contactless cards, this is no longer a valid reason not to provide this facility."

4.3 PC User Profile Development in Canada

Researchers at the ATRC of the University of Toronto, are working to develop a system which employs a smart card to store the specific PC access requirements of users with disabilities who wish to use public workstations, such as in Libraries and college campuses.

The following information was provided for inclusion by Joseph Scheuhammer at the University of Toronto.

"When the user steps up to the station, they begin by inserting their card. The profile is read, the station is configured using the information in the profile, and a web browser is launched.

The information on the card describes the kinds of adaptive technologies the user wants to use while using the station - "adaptive technologies" include:

1. Specific applications (e.g., IBM's Home Page Reader);

2. Settings for those applications; and

3. General user interface settings (e.g., larger fonts).

There are four main disability types currently being addressed by the system:

1. Cannot see the screen (blind);

2. Difficulty seeing the screen (poor vision or colour blind);

3. Difficulty reading (cognitive impairment); and

4. Difficulty using the keyboard/mouse (motor impairment).

For the present, these groups are mutually exclusive, although in the future, effort will be made to lessen the exclusivity where appropriate.

Choosing one of these main types determines a cluster of other settings relevant to that type. For example, the motor impairment profile includes settings for using sticky keys, key repeat settings, mouse keys, use of a trackball, and/or an onscreen keyboard. If the user indicates that they desire a trackball or onscreen keyboard, then their settings are made available as well."

4.4 The Trace Center 'EZ Access' protocol

This system doesn't directly affect smart cards, but it does provide a proposed approach for making a variety of public and personal devices accessible. This could include ATMs, information kiosks, EFTPOS terminals, screen phones, mobile phones and smart card wallets and balance readers.

In contrast to the concept of storing personal user interface preferences on a smart card, this approach aims to allow anybody to walk up to any device (without needing to insert a card containing their preferences) and operate the device or machine in the way best suited to their situation. It may not be ideally suited to the multiple configuration parameters involved in the PC access scenario given above, but is likely to work well for many public terminal situations such as ATMs.

This information was extracted and minimally edited from a post made by Gregg Vanderheiden and recently sent to the Uaccess-l mailing list.

"EZ Access 2.0 It is a set of techniques that provides cross disability access to a wide range of technologies including touchscreens, ATMs, building directories, fare machines, and in the future on home appliances.

Some brief examples should give you a feel for it. The goal was to make a robust approach that would work across disabilities but that which would be easy for anyone to discover and learn.

For example. If you are blind you would approach the ATM, Kiosk, or Fare machine and feel around. If there is a handset you could pick it up. If not there would be a headphone jack - usually in a raised post to make it easy to find. Plug in a headset. Directions would tell you where you would find a diamond shaped button and two arrow shaped buttons. It would also tell you that you can use these buttons to operate the entire device. Use the arrow buttons to "look around" and the Diamond button to activate all text on the device including labels instructions and all displayed information as well as all the buttons and controls on the device, which would be available in a list that you can move up and down through using the arrow buttons. (Only the text or buttons available at any point in time would be listed at any time)

Hitting the diamond shaped button would cause text blocks you find in the list to be read to you. The diamond button is also used to activate buttons you find in the list. Just move up and down the list to see or hear what is available to a sighted person at that point. When you find something you want to have read or a button you want to press, just press the diamond shaped button. This approach works well even on touch screens and devices where either the number or the meaning of the buttons changes as you use the device".

More details on the EZ Access system are available from the Trace Center web site as follows:

§ The ms word version is http://trace.wisc.edu/docs/ez_implementation_guide/ez_implementationv2.doc

§ The text version is http://trace.wisc.edu/docs/ez_implementation_guide/ez_implementationv2.txt

§ The PDF version is http://trace.wisc.edu/docs/ez_implementation_guide/ez_implementationv2.pdf

5 SMART CARDS AND STANDARDISATION

During recent years many bodies and organizations have attempted to create smart card standards and forge alliances in order to strengthen the uptake of smart card technology. Overall, the direction of smart card development is being driven by the manufacturers and strongly branded credit card companies.

5.1 Emerging Industry Standards

The smart card industry is primarily driven by smart card manufacturers and the major credit card vendors. As a result, competition, not cooperation, is often the main motive behind so-called industry standards and forums.

A couple of the more current specifications and consortia are described below but this list is far from exhaustive.

5.1.1 Electronic Purse Standards

At present there are over 50 different and incompatible electronic purse implementations internationally. CEPS (Common Electronic Purse Specification) is an attempt by Visa and other companies to develop a set of protocols enabling various company's electronic purses to work in a consistent and auditable manner. Over 90 percent of the smart card electronic purse industry is said to be behind CEPS, but no products yet exist based on the specifications. Mastercard and Mondex are not involved in, and don't plan to support the CEPS specification, but this decision has significantly marginalised both organizations. A little over a year ago the Mondex electronic purse system was thought to be the very likely market leader and was backed by most banks internationally and in Australia.

5.1.2 Global Platform

More recently, Visa has spear-headed a multi-vendor forum called GlobalPlatform, the cross-industry group formed by Visa International to draft and disseminate software standards to promote multiapplication smart card programs. Participants include American Express, Telstra Corporation and a variety of other banks and companies.

5.1.3 CEC Specification

EMVCo, the smart card standards organization created by Europay, MasterCard and Visa, has published a jointly-developed specification on how smart cards can be used for secure payments over the Internet.

The CEC specification, as it is known, builds on the original smart card EMV (Europay/MasterCard/Visa) specification agreed upon by the card companies early last year.

The specification defines a set of requirements that ensures interoperability for credit and debit payment applications between smart cards and terminals on a global basis, regardless of where the card is used.

The idea behind the CEC specification is to ensure that EMV smart cards can be used in the virtual as well as physical world. The specification was developed with the assistance of SETCo, the organization that manages the secure electronic transaction (SET) protocol and leverages the open, global standard for secure electronic commerce.

5.2 Australia and Standards

For its part, Standards Australia has for a few years been involved in a small number of smart card efforts, mainly relating to electronic purses and electronic passports, but these have largely been overtaken by collaborative industry-driven standards. More recently, Standards Australia has developed an E-Commerce team which is looking for industry-relevant standards which may also impact smart card technologies.

Late in 1999 three Australian companies (Telstra Corporation, ANZ Bank and Perth-based transportation ticketing company ERG) announced the formation of a new company to centralise the clearance of smart card payments in Australia. They also hope to promote standardisation for smart cards in Australia, particularly focusing on multi-application smart card implementations.

An Australian consortium formed in mid 1999 and headed by the ACT Government examined the issue of having a single multi-application smart card for use by a number of Australian State and City governments. A request for information was issued in July 1999 and the group subsequently adopted the MultOS platform for use by consortium members. No consortium members need to adopt the recommendations of the group, but Canberra is already in the process of developing a MultOS-based smart card system for use in public libraries, parking stations and other areas.

5.3 European Union and Standards

As discussed earlier, the Royal National Institute for the Blind (RNIB) has been involved in several standards efforts which address attributes of the physical smart card. To date there doesn't appear to be particularly strong uptake of these standards in most countries, but this may be due to limited awareness of RNIB's work, and recent alterations in the EU's standards acceptance requirements.

In addition to the three standards or drafts cited below, several recommendations/conventions are also suggested.

These include always adopting the telephone-style layout (with 1, 2 and 3 on the top row), providing a funnel-shaped opening for card insertion slots, using contactless cards wherever possible, high contrast large print displays, buttons with a positive response, and audio feedback of key-presses.

The following extracts provide additional particulars of the work being conducted by RNIB and the European Union in the area of smart cards and electronic purse standards.

5.3.1 Card Orientation

5.3.2 Storing User Interface Preferences

5.3.3 Differentiating smart cards by touch

John Wall, President of the European Blind Union, says the following about the importance of selecting cards by touch. The report he eludes to is cited below.

"For a blind person, or someone suffering from impaired vision, tactile markings are not just useful, they are essential to enable that person to identify items by touch. On behalf of all the blind and visually impaired people of Europe, I welcome this report.

It calls on card issuers to incorporate embossed symbols on all cards to help people differentiate one card from another. This is absolutely necessary when we have to deal with so many cards. It explains appropriate ISO and CEN standards and proposes a new CEN standard. This will meet the needs of those having to operate self-service terminals, giving them the independence and privacy which they need and deserve.

I commend the report and congratulate its authors on a job well done.

John Wall, President, European Blind Union"

Foreword taken from Gill J M & Devine-Wright H, Selecting Cards by Touch ISBN 1 86048 0195, March 1999, 24 pp. Online at http://www.tiresias.org/tdiff.htm#selectingcards

On Behalf of

With Funding from

3.4 Smart Cards and Transportation